Artificial Intelligence Industry In China

The expert system market in individuals’s Republic of China is a rapidly establishing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI advancement began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms emphasizing science and innovation as the country’s main efficient force.

The preliminary stages of China’s AI advancement were slow and came across substantial challenges due to absence of resources and skill. At the beginning China was behind the majority of Western countries in regards to AI development. A majority of the research was led by researchers who had actually received college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of the People’s Republic of China has progressively established a nationwide program for artificial intelligence advancement and became one of the leading countries in expert system research study and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it aimed to become an international AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI groups” consisting of fifteen China-based companies, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each company should lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s fast AI development has significantly affected Chinese society in many locations, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transport, lodging and food services, and production are the leading markets that would be the most affected by additional AI implementation.

The private sector, university laboratories, and the military are working collaboratively in lots of aspects as there are few current existing limits. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its very first nationwide law resolving AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade restrictions meant to limit China’s access to sophisticated computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the impacts of the Chinese federal government’s censorship routine on the advancement of generative expert system and skill acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research and development of artificial intelligence in China began in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the importance of science and technology for China’s economic growth. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Artificial intelligence research study and development did not begin until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is due to the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers released AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a typically conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was difficult so China’s federal government approached these challenges by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and additional providing federal government funds for research jobs. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in philosophy from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s very first research study publication on artificial intelligence was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, smart automation and intelligence have become part of China’s national technology plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has actually even more broadened its research study and development funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research study tasks has significantly increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy top priority for the development of artificial intelligence, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the very same year, artificial intelligence was likewise pointed out in the eleventh five-year plan. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of artificial intelligence. The very first award event was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was held in China. This event accompanied the Chinese government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a considerable milestone in China’s advancement of expert system. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China released “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of artificial intelligence. Specifically, the plan described AI as a tactical innovation that has actually ended up being a “focus of global competition”. [14]:2 The file prompted substantial investment in a number of strategic areas associated with AI and called for close cooperation between the state and private sectors. On the occasion of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between financial and military ends is a vital part to being a great power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”artificial intelligence plus” was proposed to be elevated to a tactical level. [16] The same year saw the introduction of multiple application-level usages in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research study laboratory in Nanjing, and introduced their very first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation required]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its very first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to accomplish this the State Council specified the requirement for enormous skill acquisition, theoretical and useful developments, along with public and personal investments. [14] A few of the mentioned inspirations that the State Council provided for pursuing its AI method include the potential of expert system for industrial improvement, better social governance and preserving social stability. [14] Since completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business throughout fundamental, technical, and application layers, with associated markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of artificial intelligence broadened to numerous fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research. With the development of big language models (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese scientists started developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big design called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system introduced China’s very first large scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly released the regulations worrying deepfakes, which ended up being efficient in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei released its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on fundamental generative AI services security requirements, including specs for information collection and design training was provided in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government launched its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and intends to construct AI policy discussion with establishing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has expressed concern over AI security risks, consisting of abuse of information or using AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, began utilizing news anchors produced with generative artificial intelligence to deliver fake news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang released the AI+ Initiative, which intends to incorporate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it presented a large language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in income over the last year. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third biggest. The 4th and 5th largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by investors as China’s new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had been authorized by the Chinese government. [33]

As of 2024, many Chinese technology companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually introduced AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of major AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the forefront of AI technology will be vital to the future of international military and economic power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make essential contributions to standard AI theory and to solidify its place as a global leader in AI research. Further, the State Council aims for AI to end up being “the primary driving force for China’s industrial updating and economic transformation” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the worldwide leader in the advancement of expert system theory and innovation. The State Council declares that China will have established a “fully grown new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “looks for to blend state planning and control while some functional flexibility for companies. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competitors through domestic market securities, creating uneven advantages as they broaden offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan reaffirmed AI as a leading research priority and ranks AI first amongst “frontier markets” that the Chinese government intends to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a tactical sector frequently supported by China’s government assistance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI financing generally focused on advanced and applied research. [38] The federal government financing likewise supported several AI R&D in the economic sector through endeavor capitals that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic agency research showed that, while China is massively buying all elements of AI advancement, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing cars are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to nationwide guidance on developing China’s high-tech commercial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county selected as a speculative development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in experimental areas. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending upon cities and local commercial development and community. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production industry, greatly focuses on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI implementations and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the top prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a global competition for computer vision systems. [41] A number of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic security network. [42]

Interdisciplinary partnerships play an essential function in China’s AI R&D, consisting of academic-corporate collaboration, public-private partnerships, and international collaborations and tasks with corporate-government partnerships are the most common. [1] China ranked in the top three around the world following the United States and the European Union for the overall variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the overall variety of global AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI papers are mainly sponsored by the government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence launched the world’s largest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI scientists had actually finished their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has actually been proactive in controling AI services and enforcing commitments on AI business, the general approach to its policy is loose and shows a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population produces a massive quantity of accessible information for business and researchers, which offers an important benefit in the race of huge information. As of 2024 [update], China has the world’s biggest variety of users, producing big quantities of data for maker knowing and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial acknowledgment

Facial recognition is one of the most widely used AI applications in China. Collecting these large quantities of information from its locals assists further train and broaden AI capabilities. China’s market is not only favorable and valuable for corporations to further AI R&D but likewise provides incredible economic potential drawing in both worldwide and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The drastic development of the details and interaction technology (ICT) market and AI chipsets recently are two examples of this. [47] China has actually ended up being the world’s biggest exporter of facial recognition technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and content controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft procedures specifying that tech business will be obliged to ensure AI-generated content supports the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, respects intellectual property rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, business bear legal obligation for training data and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese federal government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced material might not “prompt subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system.” [51] Before launching a large language design to the general public, business need to look for approval from the CAC to license that the design refuses to respond to particular questions connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions connected to politically delicate subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh must be decreased. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a business that maintains libraries including training data sets commonly used for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the main paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, provides local companies with training data that CCP leaders consider acceptable. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has warned that the Chinese government utilizes generative artificial intelligence to interfere in foreign elections by spreading disinformation and provoking discussions on dissentious political problems. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system model DeepSeek has been reported to decline to respond to concerns associating with things about the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most agencies [who?] hold optimistic views about AI’s financial influence on China’s long-term financial development. In the past, conventional industries in China have had problem with the boost in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the release of AI, functional costs are anticipated to reduce while an increase in performance creates income growth. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental assistance in order to conquer adoption barriers consisting of expenses and lack of correctly trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income workers might be the most adversely impacted by China’s AI development due to the fact that of rising needs for laborers with advanced abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic development may be disproportionately divided as a majority of AI-related industrial advancement is concentrated in seaside areas instead of inland. [61]

A prominent decision by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98

Military effect

China seeks to construct a “first-rate” armed force by “intelligentization” with a specific focus on the use of unmanned weapons and synthetic intelligence. [62] [63] It is investigating various kinds of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing cars. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial lorries at an airshow. A media report released afterwards showed a computer system simulation of a comparable swarm formation finding and damaging a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications showed that China is also developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mostly affected by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense development and worries of a widening “generational gap” in contrast to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military ideas, China aims to use AI for making use of big troves of intelligence, creating a typical operating image, and speeding up battlefield decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s reaction to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which seeks to incorporate sensing units and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve categories of military applications of AI have actually been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software application, choice support, software, automated missile launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI community contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, few limits exist between Chinese business business, university research labs, the military, and the central government. As an outcome, the Chinese federal government has a direct methods of assisting AI advancement top priorities and accessing technology that was ostensibly established for civilian functions. To even more reinforce these ties the Chinese federal government produced a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is planned to speed the transfer of AI innovation from industrial companies and research institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower expenses of information identifying to produce the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one quote, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the potential to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is buying the U.S. AI market, in companies dealing with militarily relevant AI applications, possibly granting it lawful access to U.S. innovation and copyright. [69] Chinese equity capital financial investment in U.S. AI companies between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration released an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, “especially those from competitor or adversarial countries,” from purchasing U.S. innovation firms, due to U.S. national security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese federal government has been investing, including “microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] sophisticated tidy energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually established a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unapproved due to its design usage prohibition for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the very first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, particularly because China deals with challenges in recruiting and maintaining AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the information researchers in the United States have been working in the field for over ten years, while approximately the exact same percentage of information scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused experts and research products. [61]:8 Although China exceeded the United States in the variety of research papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its published papers, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th worldwide. [75] China specifically want to resolve military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, just recently developed the very first children’s curriculum in military AI in the world. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database preserved by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical concerns

For the previous years, there are discussions about AI safety and ethical concerns in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology released the very first national ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with specific focus on user security, information personal privacy, and security. [78] This file acknowledges the power of AI and quick innovation adjustment by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings shall remain in complete decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Expert system published the Beijing AI principles requiring vital needs in long-lasting research and planning of AI ethical concepts. [79]

Data security has actually been the most common subject in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and numerous national governments have actually developed legislation attending to information privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 intending to resolve new obstacles raised by AI advancement. [80] [initial research?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, setting up a regulatory structure categorizing all type of information collection and storage in China. [81] This means all tech business in China are required to classify their information into classifications noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific guidelines on how to govern and deal with information transfers to other parties. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program artificial intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes connected to ecommerce and internet-related intellectual home claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court via videoconference and AI assesses the evidence provided and uses appropriate legal standards. [82]:124

Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based on fragmented judicial data can reach objective decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, teacher of law at the China University of Government and Law, composes that AI-technology companies might wear down judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing party management, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary space of judges are intentional objectives of SCR [smart court reform]” [85]

Leading companies

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI business iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have gotten attention for facial acknowledgment, sound acknowledgment and drone innovations. [87]

China’s federal government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has actually sought to motivate personal tech business in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its large language model Hunyuan for business use on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually also been promoted as a leading startup. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s dedication to worldwide AI management and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically embedded causes of China’s stress and anxiety towards securing an international technological supremacy – China missed both commercial transformations, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to benefit from the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital technology consisting of AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the nationwide rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A short article released by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese federal government authorities showed extremely keen understanding of the problems surrounding AI and global security. This includes knowledge of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and suggested that “the U.S. policymaking neighborhood to likewise focus on cultivating knowledge and understanding of AI developments in China” and “funding, focus, and a desire amongst U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale necessary modification.” [35] A post in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: “China may have unrivaled resources and enormous untapped potential, but the West has world-leading expertise and a strong research study culture. Rather than fret about China’s development, it would be wise for Western countries to focus on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research and education. ” [91]

The Chinese government’s censorship program has actually stunted the development of generative expert system [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the development of AI develops obstacles for holistic nationwide security, consisting of the dangers that AI will heighten social tensions or have destabilizing effects on global relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will result in higher oppression of workers and more major social issues. [28]:90 Gao points out how the development of AI has actually increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, causing greater capital accumulation and political power in less financial stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state should be the main responsible actor in the area of generative AI (creating new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military usage of AI threats intensifying military competition in between countries and that the effect of AI in military matters will not be restricted to one nation however will have spillover results. [28]:91

Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI experts about the existential danger from artificial intelligence have taken location. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is generally positive relating to AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study carried out throughout 28 countries found that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the benefits of AI outweigh the threats, the highest of any country in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese university trainees discovered that 80% agreed or strongly agreed that AI will do more excellent than harm for society, and 31% thought it needs to be controlled by the government. [93]

Human rights

The commonly utilized AI facial recognition has raised concerns. [94] According to The New York Times, deployment of AI facial acknowledgment technology in the Xinjiang area to detect Uyghurs is “the very first known example of a federal government deliberately utilizing expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is stated to be “one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have found that in China, locations experiencing higher rates of unrest are associated with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition technology, particularly by regional municipal authorities departments. [97] [98]

Artificial intelligence.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of expert system companies
Regulation of expert system

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Expert System: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.